Ethnicity and adjustment: a comparative study of Maltese- and Anglo-Australian adolescentsAuthor: Victoria Borg DiscussionThe study attempted to examine the correlates of measures of adjustment as they relate to ethnicity and gender differences. It found that Maltese adolescents experienced more parentchild conflicts and lower self-esteem than Anglo-Australian adolescents, confirming previous studies (Rosenthal 1984; Salgado de Snyder et al. 1990; Hogg et al. 1987). A significant relationship was found between parent-child conflicts and stress. A similar relationship was found between parent-child conflicts and self-esteem, which is in accordance with Siddique and D'Arcy's (1984) findings. As predicted, stress was significantly related to both parentchild conflicts and self-esteem, thereby supporting other findings (Harter 1990; Noller 1995). These results indicate that ethnicity has an indirect influence on adjustment via the intermediate variables, namely parent-child conflicts and self-esteem. The differences between Maltese- and Anglo-Australian adolescents in relation to the latter two variables were consistent with these findings. Unlike previous findings (Rosenthal 1984; Salgado de Snyder et aL 1990; Siddique & D'Arcy 1983), no gender differences in parent-child conflicts, self-esteem and stress were found. This suggests that the gap between the two sexes in relation to gender roles may have significantly narrowed down, thereby minimising parent-child conflicts and stress, while increasing self-esteem. It is also possible that male adolescents in this study were more open and honest about their feelings. In fact, 56% of the male participants scored highly on the question "felt constantly under strain?" 52% also scored high on the questions "been feeling nervous" and "s@g-up all the time?" Such questions require disclosure which is traditionally considered a 'feminine' characteristic. Previous literature revealed that women tend to report more stressful events than their male counterparts. This could be related to the traditional view of the 'ideal man', who is portrayed as strong and aggressive and not as anxious and stressful. The model of androgeny (Bem 1974) allows men to be more expressive. In the present study, men could no longer be inhibiting the 'opposing' part of their sex. An examination of Maltese identification revealed that the more the Maltese adolescents identified with their traditional culture, the less parent-child conflicts they experienced, thereby supporting previous findings (Rosenthal 1984; Fan 1995). Similar findings were identified in relation to stress. The more the Maltese adolescents identified with the original culture the less stress they experienced. These findings were also consistent with another study (Fan 1995). As predicted, the relationship between Maltese identification and selfesteem was significantly positive. The more the Maltese adolescents identified with the Maltese culture, the higher the self-esteem. This is congruent with other findings (Phinney & Chavira 1992). Implications and Interventions. The emerging picture of Maltese adolescents in relation to their adjustment is of considerable concern. Parent-child conflicts are the most likely to account for stress, followed by self-esteem. In addition, they are also negatively associated with high Maltese identification. Since it is not known if Maltese adolescents are more likely to reject the culture of origin and embrace the mainstream culture, speculation can only be made from personal observations and studies that involved migrants from the southern Mediterranean. Italian Youths, for example, tend to give up the traditional culture and adhere to the host culture (Rosenthal 1984). Assuming that the Maltese adolescents are more likely to be low in Maltese identification, the cultural gap between them and the parents, who seem to be more traditional (Conway 1984), would be widened, thereby heightening the possibility of triggering more parent-child conflicts, which in turn generates more stress. The likelihood that Maltese adolescents are distancing themselves from the traditional culture has further implications on their psychological well-being. Parental values, attitudes and beliefs play a crucial role in the socialisation process (De Vos 1980). Given that the parents are likely to be high in Maltese identification, the Maltese adolescents would have intemalised their values, attitudes and beliefs of the Maltese culture during their childhood years. Now that they are going through the process of identity formation, it is possible that their original values, beliefs and attitudes are still embedded in their correspondin ' em I systems, even though their outward behaviour is oriented towards the dominant cugltumrte. Ian fact, such 'core elements' are more resistant to change than outward behaviour (Rosenthal & Chicello 1989). Assuming that this is the case, Maltese adolescents are faced with internal conflicts when, through their behaviour, these 'core elements, are violated. Such a situation would provoke stress. Complementing this argument is the negative relationship between Maltese identification and stress. According to this finding, an individual who is low in Maltese identity is likely to experience more stress. Therefore, these findings point to a possibility that these adolescents are at risk of maladjustment. Another factor that is taxing on Maltese adolescents' adjustment is self-esteem which is low compared to Anglo-Australian adolescents. This can be quite damaging for their psychological development. It is widely acknowledged in the literature that self-esteem permeates all aspects of life and is crucial for adjustment. For adolescents, having high self-esteem is imperative for the mastery of their developmental tasks, including identity formation. For example, Maltese adolescents who suffer from low self-esteem may find it difficult Seeing their studies at a tertiary level or perhaps even finding a job because they may feel that they 'are not good enough' to fit into these roles. Such adolescents can get caught in a vicious cycle in which their low self-esteem can lead to undesired behaviour (eg-unemployment) which in turn generates low self-esteem, thereby perpetuating a self-fulfilling prophecy. Also, since self-esteem has been identified as having a function in mediating social support, the adolescents in question are more likely to lack this 'stress buffer', thereby becoming more vulnerable to stress. The above evidence calls for a two-pronged intervention approach - one for Anglo-Australian adolescents and another one for Maltese adolescents. The former need to be more familiar with the Maltese culture, which is still very alien to Australian society at large. It is not uncommon to meet people who have not even heard of the islands of Malta and/or of their geographical position. Understanding such culture would generate more tolerance of this unique and complex culture among the youth. Increased sensitivity would encourage Maltese adolescents to maintain their original cultural ties, which, according to our findings are crucial for adjustment. It is imperative for Maltese adolescents to have a social milieu that is safe to explore their identity - safe in terms of acceptance, lack of prejudice and other threats to their self-esteem as well as other domains of identity. According to Tajfel (1981), members tend to divorce themselves from a group that is threatening to their self-image. Conversely, a group that is not threatening and meets their needs encourages the sense of belonging to such a group. Another recommended intervention for Maltese adolescents is the establishment of a youth group in the western suburbs. To date, there are no such groups in spite of the high concentration of the Maltese migrants in these suburbs. Most of the present Maltese organisations are targeted at middle-aged and elderly people and are therefore not catering for the needs of adolescents. The establishment of a youth group would facilitate youth identity search in many ways. It offers an opportunity to enhance the cultivation of Maltese culture within a social milieu that is dominated by peers, who appear to have more influence than their parents. The affiliation with a youth group can also give youths the opportunity to meet older role models in the community, by being invited, for example, as guest speakers. The exposure to role models is very limited within the Maltese community, partly because there is very little exposure to Maltese culture on the mass media and partly because very few successful role models have been identified in the past. Belonging to a Maltese youth group would give the adolescent the opportunity to meet people from associations, such as Harmonic 65 Maltese Cultural Group, the Maltese Historical Association and the Maltese Literature Group. These groups are three of the most important pillars supporting Maltese culture in Australia and exposure to them would be an incentive to the adolescent's search for his/her ethnic identity. Source: Maltese Background Youth - Editors Cauchi M, Borland H, Adams R, 1999, [Europe Australia Institute], p 62
    
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