Ethnicity and adjustment: a comparative study of Maltese- and Anglo-Australian adolescents*Author: Victoria Borg IntroductionAdolescence is a period of time in which enormous changes occur physically, biologically, psychologically and socially. Such changes require a great deal of adjustment for the wellbeing of the individual. The literature reveals that a number of factors, such as parent-child conflicts, self-esteem, stress and gender, impinge on adjustment. Another important factor is ethnicity. Research in this area among adolescents is still in its infancy, especially in Australia. However, a consistent picture which raises concern not only for the individual but also for society at large, has started to emerge. Studies have revealed that ethnic minority adolescents, in comparison with those who belong to the dominant group, experience more stress (Salgado de Snyder et al. 1990) and more parent-child conflicts (Rosenthal, 1984). They also experience lower self-esteem (Hogg et aL 1987) and more behaviour problems (Rotheram-Borus 1989). Adolescence is a critical transition from childhood to adulthood. But when it is combined with other factors, such as ethnicity, it is even more complicated. The literature reveals that the traditional culture, which is rooted in migrants, impinges on every aspect of their lives for a long period of time. It is passed on from one generation to another. According to Giordano (1973), even second and third generation migrants communicate ethnic values, beliefs and emotional language', both at conscious and unconscious levels. Ethnic minority youths are therefore confronted with two sets of cultures which usually encompass different norms - the traditional norms and the mainstream norms. Norms can be defined as rules, as what 'should' be the nature of something, how one should behave and so on. Given that "Norms refer to one of the forces in the psychological system that steer adjustment" (Magnusson et al. 1975 p. 97), to ftmetion within the 'nonn' for the ethnic minority adolescent is an enormous task. In many cases, the intemalised norms of the original culture are in conflict with those of the dominant culture which also shapes and influences ethnic minority youths through daily contact. The general aim of the present study was to examine adjustment amongst Maltese adolescents and compare them with Anglo-Australian adolescents on a number of variables: parent-child conflicts, self-esteem and stress, which are considered as measures of adjustment for the purpose of this study. Gender was also examined in relation to these variables. Although cultural norms and standards have a significant impact on adjustment, to date there are hardly any studies which have been conducted on Maltese migrants in this area. This is a matter of concern regarding the Maltese community in Victoria where there is a high concentration of Maltese migrants, especially in the western suburbs. According to the 1991 census, 44.8 % of the total population of first-generation Maltese migrants in Australia are found in Melbourne. And in the western suburbs of Sunshine, Altona and Keilor there are 11,640 first generation Maltese migrants. The model in Figure I represents the theoretical framework adopted in this study. This model proposes that both ethnicity and gender influence parent-child conflicts and self-esteem, which in turn influence stress. Thus, belonging to a particular ethnic group will determine the quality of family relationships and self-esteem, which in turn influence stress. Therefore, ethnicity has an indirect influence on stress via the intermediate variables. This model also suggests that gender has a direct influence on parent-child conflicts, self-esteem and stress. Finally, parent-child conflicts have an influence on self-esteem. Figure 1: Theoretical model of adjustment * A study conducted in 1996 as a partial requirement for B.A. Honours in Psychology Victoria University of Technology Source: Maltese Background Youth - Editors Cauchi M, Borland H, Adams R, 1999, [Europe Australia Institute], p 62
   
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